I Read It in the Book of the Dead Chicago Web

Ancient Egyptian funerary text

Book of Coming Forth past Day

Era: New Kingdom
(1550–1069 BC)

Egyptian hieroglyphs

This item scene, from the Papyrus of Hunefer (c. 1275 BCE), shows the scribe Hunefer'southward heart being weighed on the calibration of Maat against the plume of truth, past the jackal-headed Anubis. The ibis-headed Thoth, scribe of the gods, records the result. If his heart equals exactly the weight of the feather, Hunefer is allowed to pass into the afterlife. If not, he is eaten by the waiting chimeric devouring creature Ammit composed of the deadly crocodile, lion, and hippopotamus. Vignettes such equally these were a common illustration in Egyptian books of the dead.

The Book of the Dead (Egyptian: 𓂋𓏤𓈒 𓏌𓏤 𓉐𓂋 𓏏𓂻 𓅓 𓉔𓂋 𓅱 𓇳𓏤 ru nu peret em heru; Standard arabic: كتاب الموتى Kitab al-Mawtaa ) is an aboriginal Egyptian funerary text more often than not written on papyrus and used from the beginning of the New Kingdom (around 1550 BCE) to around 50 BCE.^[ane] The original Egyptian proper noun for the text, transliterated rw nw prt m hrw,^[2] is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day ^[3] or Volume of Emerging Along into the Calorie-free . "Volume" is the closest term to describe the loose drove of texts^[4] consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a expressionless person's journey through the Duat, or underworld, and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1,000 years.

The Volume of the Expressionless, which was placed in the coffin or burying chamber of the deceased, was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts, which were painted onto objects, non written on papyrus. Some of the spells included in the book were fatigued from these older works and date to the third millennium BCE. Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history, dating to the Third Intermediate Period (11th to 7th centuries BCE). A number of the spells which make up the Volume continued to be separately inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi, as the spells from which they originated always had been.

There was no single or canonical Volume of the Dead. The surviving papyri comprise a varying pick of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration. Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead, mayhap choosing the spells they thought virtually vital in their own progression to the afterlife. The Volume of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll, and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife.

The finest extant example of the Egyptian Book of the Dead in antiquity is the Papyrus of Ani. Ani was an Egyptian scribe. Information technology was discovered by Sir E. A. Wallis Budge in 1888 and was taken to the British Museum, where it currently resides.

Evolution [edit]

Part of the Pyramid Texts, a precursor of the Book of the Expressionless, inscribed on the tomb of Teti

The Volume of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating dorsum to the Egyptian Old Kingdom. The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts, first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th Dynasty, around 2400 BCE.^[5] These texts were written on the walls of the burying chambers within pyramids, and were exclusively for the use of the pharaoh (and, from the 6th Dynasty, the queen). The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated, most likely to forestall them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh.^[six] The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead king accept his place amongst the gods, in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra; at this period the afterlife was seen every bit existence in the sky, rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead.^[6] Towards the finish of the Onetime Kingdom, the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively imperial privilege, and were adopted past regional governors and other high-ranking officials.

In the Middle Kingdom, a new funerary text emerged, the Coffin Texts. The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language, new spells, and included illustrations for the first time. The Coffin Texts were most ordinarily written on the inner surfaces of coffins, though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri.^[6] The Bury Texts were bachelor to wealthy private individuals, vastly increasing the number of people who could wait to participate in the afterlife; a process which has been described as the "democratization of the afterlife".^[7]

The Book of the Dead beginning adult in Thebes toward the starting time of the Second Intermediate Period, around 1700 BCE. The primeval known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the bury of Queen Mentuhotep, of the 13th Dynasty, where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts. Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that information technology was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure, many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological tape.^[8]

By the 17th Dynasty, the Book of the Expressionless had get widespread not only for members of the imperial family, but courtiers and other officials as well. At this phase, the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead, though occasionally they are institute written on coffins or on papyrus.^[9]

The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further. The famous Spell 125, the 'Weighing of the Heart', is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III, c.1475 BCE. From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll, and the text illustrated with vignettes. During the 19th Dynasty in detail, the vignettes tended to be lavish, sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text.^[10]

In the Third Intermediate Catamenia, the Book of the Expressionless started to appear in hieratic script, as well equally in the traditional hieroglyphics. The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version, lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning, and were produced on smaller papyri. At the same time, many burials used additional funerary texts, for example the Amduat.^[11]

During the 25th and 26th Dynasties, the Volume of the Dead was updated, revised and standardised. Spells were ordered and numbered consistently for the first time. This standardised version is known today as the 'Saite recension', after the Saite (26th) Dynasty. In the Tardily flow and Ptolemaic period, the Book of the Dead continued to be based on the Saite recension, though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic menstruation. New funerary texts appeared, including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity. The final use of the Volume of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE, though some artistic motifs drawn from information technology were still in employ in Roman times.^[12]

Spells [edit]

The mystical Spell 17, from the Papyrus of Ani. The vignette at the top illustrates, from left to correct, the god Heh as a representation of the Body of water; a gateway to the realm of Osiris; the Centre of Horus; the celestial cow Mehet-Weret; and a human head rise from a coffin, guarded by the four Sons of Horus.^[xiii]

The Volume of the Dead is made upwards of a number of private texts and their accompanying illustrations. Most sub-texts begin with the word ro, which tin mean "mouth", "speech", "spell", "utterance", "incantation", or "chapter of a book". This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought betwixt ritual speech and magical power.^[14] In the context of the Book of the Dead, it is typically translated as either chapter or spell. In this article, the discussion spell is used.

At nowadays, some 192 spells are known,^[15] though no single manuscript contains them all. They served a range of purposes. Some are intended to give the deceased mystical cognition in the afterlife, or mayhap to identify them with the gods: for example, Spell 17 is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum.^[16] Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person's being were preserved and reunited, and to give the deceased control over the world around him. However others protect the deceased from various hostile forces or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles. Famously, two spells too bargain with the judgement of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual.

Such spells equally 26–30, and sometimes spells 6 and 126, relate to the heart and were inscribed on scarabs.^[17]

The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical besides every bit religious. Magic was every bit legitimate an activity as praying to the gods, even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves.^[18] Indeed, at that place was piffling distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice.^[19] The concept of magic (heka) was besides intimately linked with the spoken and written give-and-take. The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation;^[20] there is a sense in which action and speech were ane and the same matter.^[19] The magical power of words extended to the written discussion. Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth, and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful. Written words conveyed the full force of a spell.^[20] This was fifty-fifty true when the text was abbreviated or omitted, equally often occurred in later Book of the Expressionless scrolls, particularly if the accompanying images were present.^[21] The Egyptians likewise believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it; thus, the Volume of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would run into in the afterlife, giving him power over them.^[22]

Egyptian Volume of the Dead, painted on a bury fragment (c. 747–656 BCE): Spell 79 (attaching the soul to the body); and Spell 80 (preventing incoherent voice communication)

The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can likewise be seen in other areas of Egyptian life. A number of spells are for magical amulets, which would protect the deceased from harm. In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus, these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy.^[18] Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers. Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb, such as headrests, were also considered to have amuletic value.^[23] A number of spells besides refer to Egyptian beliefs nearly the magical healing power of saliva.^[eighteen]

Organization [edit]

Almost every Book of the Dead was unique, containing a dissimilar mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available. For most of the history of the Book of the Expressionless in that location was no defined club or structure.^[24] In fact, until Paul Barguet'southward 1967 "pioneering written report" of common themes between texts,^[25] Egyptologists concluded there was no internal construction at all.^[26] It is only from the Saite period (26th Dynasty) onwards that there is a defined order.^[27]

The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Capacity into 4 sections:

Chapters i–16 The deceased enters the tomb and descends to the underworld, and the body regains its powers of movement and oral communication.
Chapters 17–63 Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places. The deceased is made to live again then that he may arise, reborn, with the morning lord's day.
Chapters 64–129 The deceased travels across the sky in the sun ark every bit one of the blessed expressionless. In the evening, the deceased travels to the underworld to announced earlier Osiris.
Chapters 130–189 Having been vindicated, the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods. This section besides includes assorted chapters on protective amulets, provision of food, and important places.^[26]

Egyptian concepts of decease and afterlife [edit]

A vignette in The Papyrus of Ani, from Spell 30B: Spell For Not Letting Ani's Heart Create Opposition Against Him, in the Gods' Domain, which contains a delineation of the ba of the deceased

The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of expiry and the afterlife. The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information well-nigh Egyptian behavior in this area.

Preservation [edit]

I aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu, or modes of beingness.^[28] Funerary rituals served to re-integrate these dissimilar aspects of being. Mummification served to preserve and transform the concrete body into sah, an idealised course with divine aspects;^[29] the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased, which may take been recited during the procedure of mummification.^[30] The heart, which was regarded equally the attribute of being which included intelligence and retentivity, was also protected with spells, and in case anything happened to the physical center, it was common to coffin jewelled heart scarabs with a torso to provide a replacement. The ka, or life-force, remained in the tomb with the dead body, and required sustenance from offerings of food, water and incense. In instance priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings, Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied.^[31] The name of the expressionless person, which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence, was written in many places throughout the Book, and spell 25 ensured the deceased would retrieve their own name.^[32] The ba was a gratuitous-ranging spirit aspect of the deceased. Information technology was the ba, depicted as a man-headed bird, which could "go forth by day" from the tomb into the world; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it.^[33] Finally, the shut, or shadow of the deceased, was preserved by spells 91, 92 and 188.^[34] If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved, remembered, and satiated, and so the dead person would live on in the course of an akh. An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell amongst the gods.^[35]

Afterlife [edit]

The nature of the afterlife which the dead people enjoyed is difficult to ascertain, considering of the differing traditions inside Ancient Egyptian faith. In the Volume of the Dead, the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris, who was confined to the subterranean Duat. There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra every bit he travelled the sky in his sun-barque, and aid him fight off Apep.^[36] As well every bit joining the Gods, the Book of the Dead likewise depicts the dead living on in the 'Field of Reeds', a paradisiac likeness of the real world.^[37] The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush, plentiful version of the Egyptian way of living. There are fields, crops, oxen, people and waterways. The deceased person is shown encountering the Bang-up Ennead, a group of gods, besides equally his or her own parents. While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful, it is as well clear that manual labour is required. For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti, or later ushebti. These statuettes were inscribed with a spell, also included in the Book of the Expressionless, requiring them to undertake whatever manual labour that might exist the owner's duty in the afterlife.^[38] Information technology is also articulate that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived, but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves. In many occasions, the deceased is mentioned every bit "The Osiris – [Name]" in the Book of the Dead.

Two 'gate spells'. On the pinnacle annals, Ani and his wife face the 'vii gates of the House of Osiris'. Below, they encounter ten of the 21 'mysterious portals of the House of Osiris in the Field of Reeds'. All are guarded past unpleasant protectors.^[39]

The path to the afterlife every bit laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one. The deceased was required to laissez passer a series of gates, caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures.^[40] These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms, typically as homo figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts. Their names—for case, "He who lives on snakes" or "He who dances in blood"—are equally grotesque. These creatures had to exist pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead; once pacified they posed no further threat, and could fifty-fifty extend their protection to the expressionless person.^[41] Another breed of supernatural creatures was 'slaughterers' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris; the Book of the Expressionless equipped its owner to escape their attentions.^[42] Also as these supernatural entities, there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals, including crocodiles, snakes, and beetles.^[43]

Judgment [edit]

If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated, the deceased would be judged in the "Weighing of the Heart" ritual, depicted in Spell 125. The deceased was led past the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris. There, the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a listing of 42 sins,^[44] reciting a text known equally the "Negative Confession". And then the dead person's heart was weighed on a pair of scales, against the goddess Maat, who embodied truth and justice. Maat was frequently represented by an ostrich feather, the hieroglyphic sign for her name.^[45] At this point, at that place was a risk that the deceased's heart would bear witness, owning up to sins committed in life; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality. If the scales counterbalanced, this meant the deceased had led a good life. Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife, becoming maa-kheru, significant "vindicated" or "truthful of voice".^[46] If the middle was out of balance with Maat, and so another fearsome fauna called Ammit, the Devourer, stood ready to consume it and put the dead person's afterlife to an early and unpleasant end.^[47]

This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness just every bit i of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content. The judgment of the expressionless and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society. For every "I have not..." in the Negative Confession, it is possible to read an unexpressed "Chiliad shalt not".^[48] While the Ten Commandments of Jewish and Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid downward by a perceived divine revelation, the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality.^[49] Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute, with ethical purity existence necessary for progress to the Afterlife. John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality; past preventing the heart from contradicting him with whatsoever inconvenient truths, information technology seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had non been entirely pure.^[47] Ogden Goelet says "without an exemplary and moral being, there was no hope for a successful afterlife",^[48] while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially like to the spells protecting from demons, and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased'southward moral behaviour.^[50]

Producing a Volume of the Dead [edit]

Part of the Book of the Dead of Pinedjem Two. The text is hieratic, except for hieroglyphics in the vignette. The use of blood-red pigment, and the joins between papyrus sheets, are also visible.

A Book of the Dead was produced to social club past scribes. They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funerals, or by the relatives of someone recently deceased. They were expensive items; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver,^[51] perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer.^[52] Papyrus itself was evidently costly, as at that place are many instances of its re-use in everyday documents, creating palimpsests. Once, a Volume of the Dead was written on 2d-hand papyrus.^[53]

Most owners of the Volume of the Dead were evidently role of the social elite; they were initially reserved for the royal family, but afterwards papyri are found in the tombs of scribes, priests and officials. Most owners were men, and more often than not the vignettes included the owner'southward married woman every bit well. Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead, there are roughly 10 copies belonging to men for every ane for a adult female. However, during the Third Intermediate Period, 2 were for women for every one for a human; and women owned roughly a tertiary of the hieratic papyri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods.^[54]

The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely; the longest is 40 k long while some are equally brusque equally ane one thousand. They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together, the private papyri varying in width from xv cm to 45 cm. The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts; care was taken to frame the text inside margins, and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets. The words peret em heru, or coming forth by day sometimes appear on the contrary of the outer margin, possibly acting every bit a characterization.^[53]

Books were frequently prefabricated in funerary workshops, with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in subsequently.^[55] For example, in the Papyrus of Ani, the name "Ani" appears at the top or lesser of a cavalcade, or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript, and in some places is mis-spelt or omitted entirely.^[52]

The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs, most often from left to correct, but also sometimes from correct to left. The hieroglyphs were in columns, which were separated past black lines – a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments. Illustrations were put in frames above, beneath, or between the columns of text. The largest illustrations took up a full folio of papyrus.^[56]

From the 21st Dynasty onward, more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script. The calligraphy is like to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns (oft the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up). Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Expressionless contains captions in hieroglyphic.

The text of a Volume of the Expressionless was written in both blackness and cherry-red ink, regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script. Near of the text was in black, with red ink used for the titles of spells, opening and closing sections of spells, the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals, and also for the names of unsafe creatures such as the demon Apep.^[57] The black ink used was based on carbon, and the red ink on ochre, in both cases mixed with water.^[58]

The mode and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely. Some comprise lavish colour illustrations, even making use of gold leaf. Others contain only line drawings, or one unproblematic illustration at the opening.^[59]

Book of the Dead papyri were oftentimes the work of several different scribes and artists whose piece of work was literally pasted together.^[53] It is ordinarily possible to identify the way of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript, even when the manuscript is a shorter one.^[57] The text and illustrations were produced by unlike scribes; there are a number of Books where the text was completed simply the illustrations were left empty.^[60]

Volume of the Expressionless of Sobekmose, the Goldworker of Amun, 31.1777e, Brooklyn Museum

Discovery, translation, interpretation and preservation [edit]

The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early on equally the Middle Ages, well before its contents could exist understood. Since information technology was plant in tombs, it was plain a document of a religious nature, and this led to the widespread but mistaken conventionalities that the Book of the Expressionless was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur'an.^[61] ^[62]

In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name "Book of The Dead" (das Todtenbuch). He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use, identifying 165 dissimilar spells.^[15] Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Volume of the Expressionless, cartoon on all relevant manuscripts. This project was undertaken past Édouard Naville, starting in 1875 and completed in 1886, producing a iii-book work including a pick of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with, the more significant variations of the text for every spell, and commentary. In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the commencement all-encompassing English translation.^[63] In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny.^[64]

The work of Due east. A. Wallis Budge, Birch'south successor at the British Museum, is still in broad circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English language translations of the Papyrus of Ani, though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out-of-date.^[65] More contempo translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen (1974) and Raymond O. Faulkner (1972).^[66] As more piece of work has been done on the Book of the Expressionless, more than spells have been identified, and the total now stands at 192.^[15]

In the 1970s, Ursula Rößler-Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Volume of the Expressionless texts. This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the German Research Foundation, in 2004 coming nether the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts. Today the Volume of the Dead Project, as information technology is called, maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80% of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Expressionless texts, and provides current services to Egyptologists.^[67] It is housed at the University of Bonn, with much material available online.^[68] Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies, the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch, aslope a serial that publishes the manuscripts themselves, Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches.^[69] Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag. Orientverlag has released some other serial of related monographs, Totenbuchtexte, focused on analysis, synoptic comparison, and textual criticism.

Research work on the Book of the Expressionless has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts. Initially, these were copied out by hand, with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida. In the mid-19th century, hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more viable. In the present 24-hour interval, hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this, combined with digital print technology, ways that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced. However, a very large amount of the source material in museums effectually the world remains unpublished.^[70]

Chronology [edit]

c. 3150 BCE – Commencement preserved hieroglyphs, on minor labels in the tomb of a king buried (in tomb U-j) at Abydos
c. 3000 BCE – The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of aboriginal Arab republic of egypt
c. 2345 BCE – First purple pyramid, of King Unas, to contain the Pyramid Texts, carved precursors (intended only for the rex) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
c. 2100 BCE – Start Coffin Texts, developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a fourth dimension painted on the coffins of commoners. Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
c. 1600 BCE – Earliest spells of the Book of the Expressionless, on the bury of Queen Menthuhotep, an ancestor of kings from the New Kingdom
c. 1550 BCE – From this time onward to the commencement of the New Kingdom, papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
c. 600 BCE – Approximately when the society of the spells became standard
42–553 CE – Christianity spreads to Egypt, gradually replacing the native religion as successive emperors alternately tolerate or suppress them, culminating in the last temple at Philae (also site of the last known religious inscription in demotic, dating from 452) being closed past order of Emperor Justinian in 533
2nd century CE – Possibly the last copies of the Volume of the Dead were produced, only it is a poorly documented era of history
1798 CE – Napoleon'due south invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt; 1799, Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
1805 CE – J. Marc Cadet makes the start publication, on xviii plates, of a Volume of the Dead, Copie figurée d'un Roleau de Papyrus trouvé à Thèbes dans un Thombeau des Rois, accompagnèe d'une notice descriptive, Paris, Levrault
1822 CE – Jean-François Champollion announces the central to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing, subsequently developed in his later publications, the about extensive later his decease in 1832
1842 CE – Lepsius publishes the beginning major study of the Book of the Dead, begins the numbering of the spells or chapters, and brings the name "Book of the Dead" into general apportionment^[71]

References [edit]

^ Taylor 2010, p.54
^ Allen, 2000. p.316
^ Taylor 2010, p.55; or perhaps "Utterances of Going Forth by Day", D'Auria 1988, p. 187
^ The Egyptian Volume of the Dead by Anonymous (2 Jun 2014) ...with an introduction past Paul Mirecki (VII)
^ Faulkner p. 54
^ ^a ^b ^c Taylor 2010, p. 54
^ D'Auria et al p.187
^ Taylor 2010, p.34
^ Taylor 2010, p. 55
^ Taylor 2010, p.35–7
^ Taylor 2010, p.57–eight
^ Taylor 2010, p.59 60
^ Taylor 2010, p.51
^ Faulkner 1994, p.145; Taylor 2010, p.29
^ ^a ^b ^c Faulkner 1994, p.18
^ Taylor 2010, p.51, 56
^ Hornung, Erik; David Lorton (15 June 1999). The aboriginal Egyptian books of the afterlife . Cornell University Press. p. 14. ISBN978-0-8014-8515-2.
^ ^a ^b ^c Faulkner 1994, p.146
^ ^a ^b Faulkner 1994, p.145
^ ^a ^b Taylor 2010, p.thirty
^ Taylor 2010, p.32–iii; Faulkner 1994, p.148
^ Taylor 2010, p.30–1
^ Pinch 1994, p.104–v
^ Taylor 2010, p.55
^ Barguet, Paul (1967). Le Livre des morts des anciens Égyptiens (in French). Paris: Éditions du Cerf.
^ ^a ^b Faulkner 1994, p.141
^ Taylor, p.58
^ Taylor 2010, p.16-17
^ Taylor 2010, p.17 & 20
^ For example, Spell 154. Taylor 2010, p.161
^ Taylor 2010, p.163-four
^ Taylor 2010, p.163
^ Taylor 2010, p.17, 164
^ Taylor 2010, p.164
^ Taylor 2010, p.17
^ Spells 100–2, 129–131 and 133–136. Taylor 2010, p.239–241
^ Spells 109, 110 and 149. Taylor 2010, p.238–240
^ Taylor 2010, p.242–245
^ Taylor 2010, p.143
^ Taylor 2010, p.135
^ Taylor 2010, p.136–7
^ Taylor 2010, p. 188
^ Taylor 2010, p. 184–7
^ Taylor 2010, p. 208
^ Taylor 2010, p.209
^ Taylor 2010, p.215
^ ^a ^b Taylor 2010, p.212
^ ^a ^b Faulkner 1994, p.14
^ Taylor 2010,p.204–5
^ Pinch 1994, p.155
^ Taylor 2010, p. 62
^ ^a ^b Faulkner 1994, p. 142
^ ^a ^b ^c Taylor 2010, p. 264
^ Taylor 2010, p. 62–63
^ Taylor 2010, p. 267
^ Taylor 2010, p. 266
^ ^a ^b Taylor 2010, p. 270
^ Taylor 2010, p. 277
^ Taylor 2010, p. 267–8
^ Taylor 2010, p. 268
^ Faulkner 1994, p.xiii
^ Taylor 210, p.288 ix
^ "Arab republic of egypt's Place in Universal History", Vol 5, 1867
^ Taylor 2010, p.289 92
^ Taylor 2010, p.291
^ Hornung 1999, p.15–16
^ Müller-Roth 2010, p.190-191
^ Das Altagyptische Totenbuch: Ein Digitales Textzeugenarchiv (external link)
^ Müller-Roth 2010, p.191
^ Taylor 2010, p.292–7
^ Kemp, Barry (2007). How to Read the Egyptian Book of the Dead. New York: Granta Publications. pp. 112–113.

External links [edit]

The Mummy Chamber Brooklyn Museum Exhibit
Das altägyptische Totenbuch - ein digitales Textzeugenarchiv Complete digital archive of all witnesses for the Book of the Dead (with descriptions of the (c. 3000) objects and (c. xx,000) images)
Online Readable Text, with several images and reproductions of Egyptian papyri
Papyrus of Hunefer, with many scenes and their formula English language translations, from the copy now in the British Museum
Video: British Museum curator introduces the Book of the Dead

bergstromwhates.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_the_Dead

I Read It in the Book of the Dead Chicago Web

Evolution [edit]

Spells [edit]

Organization [edit]

Egyptian concepts of decease and afterlife [edit]

Preservation [edit]

Afterlife [edit]

Judgment [edit]

Producing a Volume of the Dead [edit]

Discovery, translation, interpretation and preservation [edit]

Chronology [edit]

See also [edit]

References [edit]

Further reading [edit]

External links [edit]

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